The trial of Galileo Galilei (2-3 things I have discovered)

1 • Galileo against everyone?

In the last pages of the blog, I talked about:

• astronomical research during Galileo’s time;
• the reason for his condemnation by the Inquisition;

I tried to briefly explain the historical context.

Galileo certainly had enemies — many Dominicans, some Jesuits (as mentioned, disagreements were more due to personal rivalries than scientific reasons)…

…but there were also many personalities (both religious and secular) who supported his projects: Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino, Cardinal Maffeo Barberini (before he became pope), the Grand Duke of Florence, the authorities of the Venetian Republic, some Jesuit mathematicians, the Lincean Academy in Rome, …

…even within the Roman Inquisition, there were conflicting opinions about Galileo; at that time, it was composed of two parts:

• the Congregation of the Holy Office, headed by the Pope himself;
• the Congregation of the Index (established in 1571), whose prefect was a cardinal.

Within the two congregations, the various cardinals had different positions on philosophy, theology, Galileo’s work, and many other issues:

Anyway, I’ve made enough premises…

…today I would like to step (softly) into the heart of the matter: in this little page, I’m trying to organize some notes — drawn from various readings — about how Galileo Galilei’s trial was conducted by the Roman Inquisition.

2 • Early warnings for Galileo

One of the first accusations against Galileo came from the amanuensis Silvestro Piagnoni in Padua (where Galileo had been a professor of mathematics since 1592).

Piagnoni had been his roommate for a while before leaving in debt. In 1604, Piagnoni accused Galileo of:

• formulating horoscopes for payment;
• associating with a “prostitute” (sic!) instead of attending Mass;
• reading the Letters of Pietro Aretino;
• being friends with Cesare Cremonini (*), with whom he had founded the Academy of the Sheltered in 1599.

(*) (an Italian philosopher and scientist of the 16th century, who was a professor of natural philosophy at the University of Padua from 1590)

Cremonini was denounced several times for supporting heretical ideas (he defended Pietro Pomponazzi’s theories on the mortality of the soul); thanks to his religious observance (which was only for show) , however, he always managed to extricate himself from any accusation (in 1607, 1608, 1611, 1619, and 1626)… so much so that he retained his professorship at Padua until 1629 – also thanks to the protection of the Venetian Senate.

(For information on Cremonini, see CHRISTOPHER BLACK, History of the
Inquisition in Italy. Courts, Heretics, Censorship., Carocci, Rome 2018, p. 282)

In the following years, when Galileo returned to Tuscany, he continued to attract suspicious attention:

• In 1611, some friends warned him that the Roman Inquisition was gathering information about his theories regarding the motion of the Earth;
• Meanwhile, even the Dominicans in Florence became mistrustful of him; criticisms increased after the publication of the “Letters on Sunspots” (in 1613); on December 21, 1614, the Dominican Tommaso Caccini delivered a sermon criticizing Galileo and other mathematicians for some of their theories contradicting the interpretation then given to certain biblical passages (including the passage from Joshua, which I have discussed here);

However, all these investigations came to nothing… the accusations against Galileo’s opponents were indeed very weak, and during that period, the scientist was never formally interrogated or charged.

3 • Galileo Invited to Rome by the Jesuits

In 1611, Galileo was invited twice to Rome by the Jesuits (on March 30 and May 18)…

…and on both occasions, he was received with great ceremony… so much so that both encounters were publicized through specific “notices.”

One of the notices (on April 16) refers to a nighttime symposium organized at the villa of Monsignor Innocenzo Malvasia (outside Porta San Pancrazio). Scientists and cardinals were invited to the event; in front of this audience, Galileo presented the discoveries he had made through the telescope he had designed.

Another notice (on May 18, 1611) mentions an event organized by the Marquis of Monticelli at the Collegio Romano (the Jesuit headquarters in Rome); various professors and religious figures attended this meeting, including Cardinal Bellarmino and Cardinal Barberini, who appreciated his theses.

On this occasion, a eulogy in honor of Galileo was proclaimed by the Belgian scientist and Jesuit mathematician Odo van Maelcote:

…other important astronomers (as well as Jesuits) of the time, such as Cristoforo Clavio, Christoph Grienberger, Giovanni Paolo Lembo, and others, also joined in the praise (see FLAVIA MARCACCI – WILLIAM R. SHEA, Intervista a Galileo, Carocci, Roma 2015, p. 16):

We have another testimony of this event in a letter that Grégoire de Saint-Vincent (a Flemish Jesuit and mathematician) wrote to the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens:

4 • Further Investigations by the Roman Inquisition

In the subsequent years, however, the wind blew in another direction: on February 24, 1616, eleven consultants of the Holy Office — after examining Galileo’s theories on the heliocentric system — condemned two propositions attributed to him:

• The first proposition, stating that “the Sun is the center of the world and completely devoid of local motion” (the cardinals defined this proposition as “foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical because it explicitly contradicted the sense of the sentences contained in many places of Sacred Scriptures according to the literal meaning and the common interpretation and understanding of the Holy Fathers and doctors of theology”; see CHRISTOPHER F. BLACK, Storia dell’Inquisizione in Italia. Tribunali, eretici, censura, Carrocci, Roma 2018, p. 284).
• The second proposition — “The Earth is not the center of the world, nor is it motionless, but it moves around its axis with a daily motion” — was similarly rejected.

An inquisitorial note from March 3 attests that Galileo agreed to “not assert, teach, or defend, either orally or in writing,” the aforementioned propositions.

From his correspondence with friends, it can be noted that the astronomer was relatively calm about how the matter would evolve: he had received several encouragements to continue his investigations — even from Pope Paul V, during an audience he had with him on March 11, 1616 (see CHRISTOPHER F. BLACK, History of the Inquisition in Italy. Courts, Heretics, Censorship, Carrocci, Rome 2018, p. 284).

Over the years, the pope’s attitude towards Galileo became progressively less flexible…

…but the Pisan scientist could still rely on the trust of Cardinals Barberini and Bellarmino.

Maffeo Barberini (who had already appreciated Galileo’s “Letters on Sunspots” in 1613) continued to have discussions with Galileo, urging him to carry on his research on these alternative astronomical theories.

Bellarmino also publicly sided with the scientist: during those years, rumors began circulating that Galileo had been tried and convicted.

To prevent the spread of this misinformation, on May 6, 1616, Cardinal Bellarmino issued a “certificate” stating that Galileo had not received any punishment and that the only legal action against him concerned the prohibition of spreading Copernican theories:

The relationship between Galileo and Barberini worsened after the latter became Pope.

The reason for the deterioration of the relationship was Galileo’s publication of the “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems” (in 1632). In the dialogue, the Pisan scientist aimed to refute the geocentric system, advocating instead for Copernicus’s heliocentric model… With this act, Galileo violated his commitment not to promote these theories (which, it should be noted, Galileo had not been able to prove with certain evidence!) (*).

(*) (In truth, Galileo initially received the “imprimatur” for the publication of the “Dialogue”… but then, the following year, the Congregation of the Index backtracked and included the book in the “Index of Forbidden Books”)

Probably, Urban VIII (the name Maffeo Barberini chose upon ascending to the papal throne) did not appreciate the “Dialogue” also because he believed that the character of Simplicio was a caricature of himself… this perception irritated him and even led to a quarrel with his secretary, Giovanni Ciampoli, a priest who had been a student of Galileo (the Pope believed that his secretary was in cahoots with the Pisan scientist in his satirical intent).

5 • The Trial of Galileo Galilei

The inquisitorial proceedings against Galileo began in 1633 when he was asked to go to Rome “voluntarily” (otherwise, he would be arrested and escorted to Rome “a little less voluntarily”…).

Amid health issues (the scientist was 68 years old at the time), Galileo arrived in Rome on February 13, 1633, where he stayed with the Florentine ambassador Francesco Nicolini.

His interrogation commenced on April 12, 1633.

According to the trial transcripts, Galileo exhibited some confusion — whether due to memory issues or perhaps some untruths regarding how he obtained permission to publish the “Dialogue”… and at times, he seemed a bit disoriented about the charges.

At certain moments, he even went as far as to deny the obvious:

5.1 • The Inquisitorial Panel

It is interesting to observe who the three consultants (judges) chosen to preside over the trial were.

• Father Agostino Oreggi, a Jesuit (he was a personal theologian first for Cardinal Bellarmino, then for Pope Urban VIII), and a specialist in the Eucharist. We know he was not hostile to Galileo.
• Zaccaria Pasqualigo, a Theatine regular cleric, also an expert in the Eucharist. Pasqualigo was in conflict with the Roman Jesuits — who, in turn, had been hostile to Galileo.
• Melchior Inchofer, an Austrian Jesuit, historian, and Latinist. Among the three, he was the only one hostile to Galileo and, in fact, was very critical of the “Dialogue.”

Presumably, the three judges were very familiar with Galileo’s work, and if they had wanted to strike harder against the scientist, they could have put together much more severe charges, retrieving controversial statements from the “Dialogue“…

…instead, they focused solely on Galileo’s disobedience to the prohibition of dealing with heliocentrism, following a “soft” and very tolerant approach towards Galileo.

5.2 • The Pope’s Nephew Also Sympathized with Galileo

A little curiosity: Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the pope’s nephew, sympathized with Galileo. He prohibited Galileo from being tortured during the trial (which, however, was never intended even before this prohibition; we know that on June 16, the Pope ordered the defendant to be threatened with torture… but only to scare him) and proposed that — in the case of a negative verdict — the scientist should receive mild penances (which indeed happened). In a letter that the general commissioner, Fra Vincenzo Maculano da Fiorenzuola, sent to the pope’s nephew on April 28, 1633 (a letter of which the Pope was aware), we discover that the arrangement Barberini requested for Galileo was successful:

We know that the request was accepted. Therefore, the trial could have lasted only a few days… however, Galileo did not behave as hoped (he should have confessed immediately, without too many detours), and the sentence was prolonged.

5.3 • Comparison with Other Condemned Individuals of the Time

A side note: compared to the trials of Bruno Campanella, Giordano Bruno, or other defendants (famous and unknown), Galileo’s trial was truly a spa vacation:

• During the trial, he stayed first at the Tuscan ambassador’s residence and later in the prosecutor’s apartment in the Inquisition palace. In short, no prison.
• As mentioned earlier, he was not tortured.
• The case was not accompanied by the “secrecy” that had characterized other proceedings of famous figures: what was happening was known to all, allowing the case to be resolved quickly without the bureaucratic slowness typical of inquisitorial proceedings (which had happened in some trials; other defendants had been detained for a long time before their trials took place, and they were declared innocent).

6 • Verdict, Abjuration, and Condemnation

On June 22, 1633, the verdict was pronounced at the convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (the Roman headquarters of the Dominicans):

In reality, the aggravating factor of “vehemently suspected of heresy” was added only in a late stage of the process (presumably in an illegitimate manner, given that in all his letters Galileo appears always faithful to the Magisterium of the Church; especially since in 1616, the ideas of Copernicus – taken up by Galileo – were not judged as “heretical” but simply “false”).

This was the sentence:

The day after, Galileo recanted.

At the reading of the sentence, ten cardinals were present, but three of them did not affix their signatures (Gasparo Borgia, Laudivio Zacchia, and Francesco Barberini – the Pope’s nephew)… and not even Pope Urban VIII signed the condemnation (this particular detail was noted by Descartes in a letter from 1634, addressed to Marin Mersenne; in this omission, the philosopher read the fact that the aversion to Copernican theories was not a matter of faith, and that this opposition could change) (cfr. MAURICE A. FINOCCHIARO, The Galileo Affair: A Documentary Collection, University of California Press, Berkeley 1989, p. 287-291 e 363, nota 87).

As for the punishment, as I mentioned here, the penalty of “formal imprisonment” consisted of:

• After two days of the sentence, Galileo left the Inquisition palace;
• He stayed for five months under house arrest in Rome, at the home of Pietro Niccolini, the ambassador of the Grand Duke of Tuscany (who lived in Trinità dei Monti);
• House arrest then continued in Siena, in the archbishop’s palace;
• Finally, he could conclude his detention in his villa in Arcetri, outside Florence (from where he could go out to attend Mass and occasionally visit his daughter Maria Celeste, a nun in a nearby convent).

As I mentioned earlier, in the end, Galileo’s punishment was very mild, as it simply consisted of house arrest…

6.1 • Subsequent Years

As I’ve tried to explain, Galileo was not ‘isolated’ in these research endeavors; he had many friends, supporters, students, both secular
and religious, who continued his studies during and after the trial, eventually gaining acceptance even within the Church.

Beyond ideological alignments (and sometimes biased perspectives):

• Anti-clericals who perceived Galileo’s trial as a clash between science and faith tout court, exaggerating and distorting it dishonestly…
• Apologists who are somewhat overly revisionist, attempting to exonerate the Roman Inquisition for unjustly condemning Galileo…

…In reality, in the years following the trial, Copernican and Galilean theories continued to circulate (sparking lively debates) in various universities, many of which were run by religious figures.

Moreover, debates on the matter were seldom between ‘secular’ and ‘religious’; more often, within each religious order, there were astronomers and scientists more aligned with Galileo’s positions and an equal number of more resistant researchers.

One of the places where enthusiasm and the clash of ideas were particularly lively was within the Jesuit order, who had ‘scientific research’ as one of their flagship endeavors (for more information, you can refer to the entry ‘Religious Orders and Science’ in the Treccani encyclopedia, compiled by Federica Favino in 2013).

Conclusion

In 2011, the italian rapper Caparezza wrote a song about Galileo Galilei.

However, the song isn’t exactly about Galileo.

The scientist serves more as a pretext for a diss against Christians and their credulity:

The song continues with Caparezza using Galileo ‘as a weapon against Christians’ and continues with blows like ‘a plethora of sheep
like men,’ ‘devoid of identity,’ ‘all down like sheep with their butts at the apogee,’ ‘Parochial culture has short-sighted views,’ and so on…

The funny thing is that in another song from the same album, after the final chorus, in the closing notes, Caparezza inserts this phrase from the movie “Sogni d’oro” (1981) by Nanni Moretti:

No disrespect to Caparezza… look up “inconsistency” in the dictionary, and you might just find my face…

Still, I found it amusing that in the same album with that simplistic, cliché-filled Galileo song, he throws in a Nanni Moretti quote like it’s nothing…

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(Winter 2020-2021)